Sequential Continuity At A Point
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

In
topology In mathematics, topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformations, such ...
and related fields of
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, a sequential space is a
topological space In mathematics, a topological space is, roughly speaking, a geometrical space in which closeness is defined but cannot necessarily be measured by a numeric distance. More specifically, a topological space is a set whose elements are called points ...
whose topology can be completely characterized by its convergent/divergent sequences. They can be thought of as spaces that satisfy a very weak axiom of countability, and all
first-countable space In topology, a branch of mathematics, a first-countable space is a topological space satisfying the "first axiom of countability". Specifically, a space X is said to be first-countable if each point has a countable neighbourhood basis (local base) ...
s (especially
metric space In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
s) are sequential. In any topological space (X, \tau), if a convergent sequence is contained in a
closed set In geometry, topology, and related branches of mathematics, a closed set is a set whose complement is an open set. In a topological space, a closed set can be defined as a set which contains all its limit points. In a complete metric space, a cl ...
C, then the
limit Limit or Limits may refer to: Arts and media * ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu * ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film * Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony * "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea * "Limits", a 2019 ...
of that sequence must be contained in C as well. This property is known as sequential closure. Sequential spaces are precisely those topological spaces for which sequentially closed sets are in fact closed. (These definitions can also be rephrased in terms of sequentially open sets; see below.) Said differently, any topology can be described in terms of nets (also known as Moore–Smith sequences), but those sequences may be "too long" (indexed by too large an ordinal) to compress into a sequence. Sequential spaces are those topological spaces for which nets of countable length (i.e., sequences) suffice to describe the topology. Any topology can be refined (that is, made finer) to a sequential topology, called the sequential coreflection of X. The related concepts of
Fréchet–Urysohn space In the field of topology, a Fréchet–Urysohn space is a topological space X with the property that for every subset S \subseteq X the closure of S in X is identical to the ''sequential'' closure of S in X. Fréchet–Urysohn spaces are a speci ...
s, -sequential spaces, and N-sequential spaces are also defined in terms of how a space's topology interacts with sequences, but have subtly different properties. Sequential spaces and N-sequential spaces were introduced by S. P. Franklin.


History

Although spaces satisfying such properties had implicitly been studied for several years, the first formal definition is originally due to S. P. Franklin in 1965. Franklin wanted to determine "the classes of topological spaces that can be specified completely by the knowledge of their convergent sequences", and began by investigating the first-countable spaces, for which it was already known that sequences sufficed. Franklin then arrived at the modern definition by abstracting the necessary properties of first-countable spaces.


Preliminary definitions

Let X be a set and let x_ = \left(x_i\right)_^ be a
sequence In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...
in X; that is, a family of elements of X, indexed by the
natural numbers In mathematics, the natural numbers are those numbers used for counting (as in "there are ''six'' coins on the table") and ordering (as in "this is the ''third'' largest city in the country"). Numbers used for counting are called ''cardinal n ...
. In this article, x_ \subseteq S means that each element in the sequence x_ is an element of S, and, if f : X \to Y is a map, then f\left(x_\right) = \left(f\left(x_i\right)\right)_^. For any index i, the tail of x_ starting at i is the sequence x_ = (x_i, x_, x_, \ldots)\text A sequence x_ is eventually in S if some tail of x_ satisfies x_ \subseteq S. Let \tau be a
topology In mathematics, topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformations, such ...
on X and x_ a sequence therein. The sequence x_ converges to a point x \in X, written x_\overset x (when context allows, x_\bull\to x), if, for every neighborhood U\in\tau of x, eventually x_ is in U. x is then called a limit point of x_. A function f : X \to Y between topological spaces is
sequentially continuous In topology and related fields of mathematics, a sequential space is a topological space whose topology can be completely characterized by its convergent/divergent sequences. They can be thought of as spaces that satisfy a very weak axiom of counta ...
if x_\bull\to x implies f(x_\bull)\to f(x).


Sequential closure/interior

Let (X, \tau) be a topological space and let S \subseteq X be a subset. The
topological closure In topology, the closure of a subset of points in a topological space consists of all points in together with all limit points of . The closure of may equivalently be defined as the union of and its boundary, and also as the intersection ...
(resp. topological interior) of S in (X, \tau) is denoted by \operatorname_X S (resp. \operatorname_X S). The sequential closure of S in (X, \tau) is the set\operatorname(S) = \left\which defines a map, the sequential closure operator, on the power set of X. If necessary for clarity, this set may also be written \operatorname_(S) or \operatorname_(S). It is always the case that \operatorname_X S \subseteq \operatorname_X S, but the reverse may fail. The sequential interior of S in (X, \tau) is the set\operatorname(S) = \(the topological space again indicated with a subscript if necessary). Sequential closure and interior satisfy many of the nice properties of ''topological'' closure and interior: for all subsets R, S \subseteq X, That is, sequential closure is a
preclosure operator In topology, a preclosure operator, or Čech closure operator is a map between subsets of a set, similar to a topological closure operator, except that it is not required to be idempotent. That is, a preclosure operator obeys only three of the four ...
. Unlike topological closure, sequential closure is not
idempotent Idempotence (, ) is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science whereby they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application. The concept of idempotence arises in a number of pl ...
: the last containment may be strict. Thus sequential closure is not a (
Kuratowski Kazimierz Kuratowski (; 2 February 1896 – 18 June 1980) was a Polish mathematician and logician. He was one of the leading representatives of the Warsaw School of Mathematics. Biography and studies Kazimierz Kuratowski was born in Warsaw, ( ...
)
closure operator In mathematics, a closure operator on a set ''S'' is a function \operatorname: \mathcal(S)\rightarrow \mathcal(S) from the power set of ''S'' to itself that satisfies the following conditions for all sets X,Y\subseteq S : Closure operators are de ...
.


Sequentially closed and open sets

A set S is sequentially closed if S=\operatorname(S); equivalently, for all s_\subseteq S and x \in X such that s_\oversetx, we must have x\in S.You cannot simultaneously apply this "test" to infinitely many subsets (for example, you can not use something akin to the
axiom of choice In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''a Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. Informally put, the axiom of choice says that given any collectio ...
). Not all sequential spaces are Fréchet-Urysohn, but only in those spaces can the closure of a set S can be determined without it ever being necessary to consider any set other than S.
A set S is defined to be sequentially open if its
complement A complement is something that completes something else. Complement may refer specifically to: The arts * Complement (music), an interval that, when added to another, spans an octave ** Aggregate complementation, the separation of pitch-clas ...
is sequentially closed. Equivalent conditions include: A set S is a sequential neighborhood of a point x \in X if it contains x in its sequential interior; sequential neighborhoods need ''not'' be sequentially open (see below). It is possible for a subset of X to be sequentially open but not open. Similarly, it is possible for there to exist a sequentially closed subset that is not closed.


Sequential spaces and coreflection

As discussed above, sequential closure is not in general idempotent, and so not the closure operator of a topology. One can obtain an idempotent sequential closure via
transfinite iteration Transfinite induction is an extension of mathematical induction to well-ordered sets, for example to sets of ordinal numbers or cardinal numbers. Its correctness is a theorem of ZFC. Induction by cases Let P(\alpha) be a property defined for a ...
: for a
successor ordinal In set theory, the successor of an ordinal number ''α'' is the smallest ordinal number greater than ''α''. An ordinal number that is a successor is called a successor ordinal. Properties Every ordinal other than 0 is either a successor ordin ...
\alpha+1, define (as usual)(\operatorname)^(S)=\operatorname((\operatorname)^\alpha(S))and, for a
limit ordinal In set theory, a limit ordinal is an ordinal number that is neither zero nor a successor ordinal. Alternatively, an ordinal λ is a limit ordinal if there is an ordinal less than λ, and whenever β is an ordinal less than λ, then there exists an ...
\alpha, define(\operatorname)^\alpha(S)=\bigcup_\textThis process gives an ordinal-indexed increasing sequence of sets; as it turns out, that sequence always stabilizes by index \omega_1 (the first uncountable ordinal). Conversely, the sequential order of X is the minimal ordinal at which, for any choice of S, the above sequence will stabilize. The transfinite sequential closure of S is the terminal set in the above sequence: (\operatorname)^(S). The operator (\operatorname)^ is idempotent and thus a
closure operator In mathematics, a closure operator on a set ''S'' is a function \operatorname: \mathcal(S)\rightarrow \mathcal(S) from the power set of ''S'' to itself that satisfies the following conditions for all sets X,Y\subseteq S : Closure operators are de ...
. In particular, it defines a topology, the sequential coreflection. In the sequential coreflection, every sequentially-closed set is closed (and every sequentially-open set is open).


Sequential spaces

A topological space (X, \tau) is sequential if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions: By taking Y = X and f to be the identity map on X in the universal property, it follows that the class of sequential spaces consists precisely of those spaces whose topological structure is determined by convergent sequences. If two topologies agree on convergent sequences, then they necessarily have the same sequential coreflection. Moreover, a function from Y is sequentially continuous if and only if it is continuous on the sequential coreflection (that is, when pre-composed with f).


- and -sequential spaces

A -sequential space is a topological space with sequential order 1, which is equivalent to any of the following conditions: Being a -sequential space is incomparable with being a sequential space; there are sequential spaces that are not -sequential and vice-versa. However, a topological space (X, \tau) is called a N-sequential (or neighborhood-sequential) if it is both sequential and -sequential. An equivalent condition is that every sequential neighborhood contains an open (classical) neighborhood. Every
first-countable space In topology, a branch of mathematics, a first-countable space is a topological space satisfying the "first axiom of countability". Specifically, a space X is said to be first-countable if each point has a countable neighbourhood basis (local base) ...
(and thus every
metrizable space In topology and related areas of mathematics, a metrizable space is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space. That is, a topological space (X, \mathcal) is said to be metrizable if there is a metric d : X \times X \to , \infty) s ...
) is N-sequential. There exist
topological vector spaces In mathematics, a topological vector space (also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated TVS or t.v.s.) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis. A topological vector space is a vector space that is als ...
that are sequential but N-sequential (and thus not -sequential).


Fréchet–Urysohn spaces

A topological space (X, \tau) is called Fréchet–Urysohn if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:
  • X is hereditarily sequential; that is, every topological subspace is sequential.
  • For every subset S \subseteq X, \operatorname_X S = \operatorname_X S.
  • For any subset S \subseteq X that is not closed in X and every x \in \left(\operatorname_X S\right) \setminus S, there exists a sequence in S that converges to x.
Fréchet–Urysohn spaces are also sometimes said to be "Fréchet," but should be confused with neither
Fréchet space In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, Fréchet spaces, named after Maurice Fréchet, are special topological vector spaces. They are generalizations of Banach spaces ( normed vector spaces that are complete with respect to th ...
s in
functional analysis Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. Inner product space#Definition, inner product, Norm (mathematics)#Defini ...
nor the T1 condition.


Examples and sufficient conditions

Every
CW-complex A CW complex (also called cellular complex or cell complex) is a kind of a topological space that is particularly important in algebraic topology. It was introduced by J. H. C. Whitehead (open access) to meet the needs of homotopy theory. This clas ...
is sequential, as it can be considered as a quotient of a metric space. The prime spectrum of a commutative
Noetherian ring In mathematics, a Noetherian ring is a ring that satisfies the ascending chain condition on left and right ideals; if the chain condition is satisfied only for left ideals or for right ideals, then the ring is said left-Noetherian or right-Noether ...
with the
Zariski topology In algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, the Zariski topology is a topology which is primarily defined by its closed sets. It is very different from topologies which are commonly used in the real or complex analysis; in particular, it is n ...
is sequential. Take the real line \R and identify the set \Z of integers to a point. As a quotient of a metric space, the result is sequential, but it is not first countable. Every
first-countable space In topology, a branch of mathematics, a first-countable space is a topological space satisfying the "first axiom of countability". Specifically, a space X is said to be first-countable if each point has a countable neighbourhood basis (local base) ...
is Fréchet–Urysohn and every Fréchet-Urysohn space is sequential. Thus every metrizable or pseudometrizable space — in particular, every
second-countable space In topology, a second-countable space, also called a completely separable space, is a topological space whose topology has a countable base. More explicitly, a topological space T is second-countable if there exists some countable collection \mat ...
,
metric space In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
, or
discrete space In topology, a discrete space is a particularly simple example of a topological space or similar structure, one in which the points form a , meaning they are '' isolated'' from each other in a certain sense. The discrete topology is the finest to ...
 — is sequential. Let \mathcal be a set of maps from Fréchet–Urysohn spaces to X. Then the
final topology In general topology and related areas of mathematics, the final topology (or coinduced, strong, colimit, or inductive topology) on a set X, with respect to a family of functions from topological spaces into X, is the finest topology on X that make ...
that \mathcal induces on X is sequential. A Hausdorff
topological vector space In mathematics, a topological vector space (also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated TVS or t.v.s.) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis. A topological vector space is a vector space that is als ...
is sequential if and only if there exists no strictly finer topology with the same convergent sequences.Dudley, R. M., On sequential convergence - Transactions of the American Mathematical Society Vol 112, 1964, pp. 483-507


Spaces that are sequential but not Fréchet-Urysohn

Schwartz space In mathematics, Schwartz space \mathcal is the function space of all Function (mathematics), functions whose derivatives are rapidly decreasing. This space has the important property that the Fourier transform is an automorphism on this space. T ...
\mathcal\left(\R^n\right)and the space C^(U) of
smooth functions In mathematical analysis, the smoothness of a function is a property measured by the number of continuous derivatives it has over some domain, called ''differentiability class''. At the very minimum, a function could be considered smooth if ...
, as discussed in the article on distributions, are both widely-used sequential spaces, but are not Fréchet-Urysohn. Indeed the
strong dual space In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, the strong dual space of a topological vector space (TVS) X is the continuous dual space X^ of X equipped with the strong (dual) topology or the topology of uniform convergence on bounded sub ...
s of both these of spaces are not Fréchet-Urysohn either.T. Shirai, Sur les Topologies des Espaces de L. Schwartz, Proc. Japan Acad. 35 (1959), 31-36. More generally, every infinite-dimensional
Montel Montel is a given name and surname. Notable people with the name include: Given name *Montel Vontavious Porter (born 1973), American professional wrestler *Montel Williams (born 1956), American television personality and television/radio talk show ...
DF-space In the field of functional analysis, DF-spaces, also written (''DF'')-spaces are locally convex topological vector space having a property that is shared by locally convex metrizable topological vector spaces. They play a considerable part in the ...
is sequential but not Fréchet–Urysohn. Arens' space is sequential, but not Fréchet–Urysohn.


Non-examples (spaces that are not sequential)

The simplest space that is not sequential is the
cocountable topology The cocountable topology or countable complement topology on any set ''X'' consists of the empty set and all cocountable subsets of ''X'', that is all sets whose complement in ''X'' is countable. It follows that the only closed subsets are ''X'' and ...
on an uncountable set. Every convergent sequence in such a space is eventually constant; hence every set is sequentially open. But the cocountable topology is not
discrete Discrete may refer to: *Discrete particle or quantum in physics, for example in quantum theory * Discrete device, an electronic component with just one circuit element, either passive or active, other than an integrated circuit *Discrete group, a ...
. (One could call the topology "sequentially discrete".) Let C_c^k(U) denote the space of k -smooth test functions with its canonical topology and let \mathcal'(U) denote the space of distributions, the
strong dual space In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, the strong dual space of a topological vector space (TVS) X is the continuous dual space X^ of X equipped with the strong (dual) topology or the topology of uniform convergence on bounded sub ...
of C_c^(U); neither are sequential (nor even an Ascoli space). On the other hand, both C_c^(U) and \mathcal'(U) are
Montel Montel is a given name and surname. Notable people with the name include: Given name *Montel Vontavious Porter (born 1973), American professional wrestler *Montel Williams (born 1956), American television personality and television/radio talk show ...
spaces and, in the
dual space In mathematics, any vector space ''V'' has a corresponding dual vector space (or just dual space for short) consisting of all linear forms on ''V'', together with the vector space structure of pointwise addition and scalar multiplication by const ...
of any Montel space, a ''sequence'' of continuous linear functionals converges in the
strong dual topology In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, the strong dual space of a topological vector space (TVS) X is the continuous dual space X^ of X equipped with the strong (dual) topology or the topology of uniform convergence on bounded sub ...
if and only if it converges in the
weak* topology In mathematics, weak topology is an alternative term for certain initial topologies, often on topological vector spaces or spaces of linear operators, for instance on a Hilbert space. The term is most commonly used for the initial topology of a ...
(that is, converges pointwise).


Consequences

Every sequential space has
countable tightness In mathematics, a topological space X is called countably generated if the topology of X is determined by the countable sets in a similar way as the topology of a sequential space (or a Fréchet space) is determined by the convergent sequences. Th ...
and is
compactly generated In mathematics, compactly generated can refer to: * Compactly generated group, a topological group which is algebraically generated by one of its compact subsets *Compactly generated space In topology, a compactly generated space is a topological s ...
. If f : X \to Y is a continuous
open Open or OPEN may refer to: Music * Open (band), Australian pop/rock band * The Open (band), English indie rock band * ''Open'' (Blues Image album), 1969 * ''Open'' (Gotthard album), 1999 * ''Open'' (Cowboy Junkies album), 2001 * ''Open'' (YF ...
surjection In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function) is a function that every element can be mapped from element so that . In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image of one element of i ...
between two Hausdorff sequential spaces then the set \\subseteq Y of points with unique preimage is closed. (By continuity, so is its preimage in X, the set of all points on which f is injective.) If f : X \to Y is a surjective map (not necessarily continuous) onto a Hausdorff sequential space Y and \mathcal bases for the topology on X, then f : X \to Y is an
open map In mathematics, more specifically in topology, an open map is a function between two topological spaces that maps open sets to open sets. That is, a function f : X \to Y is open if for any open set U in X, the image f(U) is open in Y. Likewise, a ...
if and only if, for every x \in X, basic neighborhood B \in \mathcal of x, and sequence y_ = \left(y_i\right)_^ \to f(x) in Y, there is a subsequence of y_\bull that is eventually in f(B).


Categorical properties

The
full subcategory In mathematics, specifically category theory, a subcategory of a category ''C'' is a category ''S'' whose objects are objects in ''C'' and whose morphisms are morphisms in ''C'' with the same identities and composition of morphisms. Intuitive ...
Seq of all sequential spaces is closed under the following operations in the
category Category, plural categories, may refer to: Philosophy and general uses * Categorization, categories in cognitive science, information science and generally *Category of being * ''Categories'' (Aristotle) *Category (Kant) *Categories (Peirce) * ...
Top of topological spaces: The category Seq is closed under the following operations in Top: Since they are closed under topological sums and quotients, the sequential spaces form a
coreflective subcategory In mathematics, a full subcategory ''A'' of a category ''B'' is said to be reflective in ''B'' when the inclusion functor from ''A'' to ''B'' has a left adjoint. This adjoint is sometimes called a ''reflector'', or ''localization''. Dually, ''A' ...
of the
category of topological spaces In mathematics, the category of topological spaces, often denoted Top, is the category whose objects are topological spaces and whose morphisms are continuous maps. This is a category because the composition of two continuous maps is again contin ...
. In fact, they are the coreflective hull of
metrizable space In topology and related areas of mathematics, a metrizable space is a topological space that is homeomorphic to a metric space. That is, a topological space (X, \mathcal) is said to be metrizable if there is a metric d : X \times X \to , \infty) s ...
s (that is, the smallest class of topological spaces closed under sums and quotients and containing the metrizable spaces). The subcategory Seq is a
Cartesian closed category In category theory, a category is Cartesian closed if, roughly speaking, any morphism defined on a product of two objects can be naturally identified with a morphism defined on one of the factors. These categories are particularly important in ma ...
with respect to its own product (not that of Top). The
exponential object In mathematics, specifically in category theory, an exponential object or map object is the categorical generalization of a function space in set theory. Categories with all finite products and exponential objects are called cartesian closed c ...
s are equipped with the (convergent sequence)-open topology. P.I. Booth and A. Tillotson have shown that Seq is the smallest Cartesian closed subcategory of Top containing the underlying topological spaces of all
metric space In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
s,
CW-complex A CW complex (also called cellular complex or cell complex) is a kind of a topological space that is particularly important in algebraic topology. It was introduced by J. H. C. Whitehead (open access) to meet the needs of homotopy theory. This clas ...
es, and
differentiable manifold In mathematics, a differentiable manifold (also differential manifold) is a type of manifold that is locally similar enough to a vector space to allow one to apply calculus. Any manifold can be described by a collection of charts (atlas). One ma ...
s and that is closed under colimits, quotients, and other "certain reasonable identities" that
Norman Steenrod Norman Earl Steenrod (April 22, 1910October 14, 1971) was an American mathematician most widely known for his contributions to the field of algebraic topology. Life He was born in Dayton, Ohio, and educated at Miami University and University of ...
described as "convenient".. Every sequential space is
compactly generated In mathematics, compactly generated can refer to: * Compactly generated group, a topological group which is algebraically generated by one of its compact subsets *Compactly generated space In topology, a compactly generated space is a topological s ...
, and finite products in Seq coincide with those for compactly generated spaces, since products in the category of compactly generated spaces preserve quotients of metric spaces.


See also

* * * * *


Notes


Citations


References

* Arkhangel'skii, A.V. and Pontryagin, L.S., ''General Topology I'', Springer-Verlag, New York (1990) . * * * * * Engelking, R., ''General Topology'', Heldermann, Berlin (1989). Revised and completed edition. * * * * Goreham, Anthony,
Sequential Convergence in Topological Spaces
, (2016) * * * * * * {{Wilansky Modern Methods in Topological Vector Spaces, edition=1 General topology Properties of topological spaces